Radiation

In physics, radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a vacuum, or through matter-containing media that are not required for their propagation. Waves of a mass filled medium itself, such as water waves or sound waves, are usually not considered to be forms of "radiation" in this sense.

The word radiation is often colloquially used in reference to ionizing radiation (e.g. x-rays, gamma rays), but the term radiation may correctly also refer to non-ionizing radiation (e.g., radio waves, heat or visible light) as well. The particles or waves radiate (i.e., travel outward in all directions) from a source. This aspect leads to a system of measurements and physical units that are applicable to all types of radiation. Because radiation expands as it passes through space, and as its energy is conserved (in vacuum), the power of all types of radiation follows an inverse-square law in relation to the distance from its source.

Both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation can be harmful to organisms and can result in changes to the natural environment. In general, however, ionizing radiation is far more harmful to living organisms per unit of energy deposited than non-ionizing radiation, since the ions that are produced, even at low radiation powers, have the potential to cause DNA damage. By contrast, most non-ionizing radiation is harmful to organisms only in proportion to the thermal energy deposited, and is conventionally considered harmless at low powers that do not produce a significant temperature rise. Ultraviolet radiation in some aspects occupies a middle ground, as it has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Although nearly the entire ultraviolet spectrum that penetrates the Earth's atmosphere is non-ionizing, this radiation does far more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be accounted for by heating effects (an example is sunburn). These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.

Electromagnetic Radiation

           

             Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is represented as self-propagating waves. EMR has electric and magnetic field components that oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of energy propagation. EMR is classified into types according to the frequency range of the waves, these types include (in order of increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. Of these, radio waves have the longest wavelengths (lowest energy) and gamma rays have the shortest and hence the highest energy. A small window of frequencies, called the visible spectrum or light, is sensed by the eyes of various organisms.

Radio Waves - are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by certain astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications.

                        

Microwaves - are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranm as short as one millimeter to as long as one meter, which equates to a frequency range of 300 GHz to 300 MHz .

Infrared - light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz, and includes most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature. Infrared light is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements.

Visible light (commonly referred to simply as light) - is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has a wavelength in the range of about 380 nanometers (nm), or 380×10⁻⁹ m, to about 740 nanometers – between the invisible infrared, with longer wavelengths and the invisible ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths.

Ultraviolet (UV) light - is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays, that is, in the range between 400 nm and 10 nm, corresponding to photon energies from 3 eV to 124 eV. It is so-named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with frequencies higher than those that humans identify as the color violet. These frequencies are invisible to humans, but visible to a number of insects and birds.

UV light is found in sunlight (where it constitutes about 10% of the energy in vacuum) and is emitted by electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury lamps and black lights. It can cause chemical reactions, and causes m

X-radiation (composed of X-rays) - is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30exahertz (3×10¹⁶ Hz to 3×10¹⁹ Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. The wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is called Röntgen radiation, after Wilhelm Röntgen,  who is usually credited as its discoverer, and who had named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation.

                           

Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays, -  refers to electromagnetic radiation of high frequency and therefore high energy per photon. Gamma rays are ionizing radiation, and are thus biologically hazardous. They are classically produced by the decay from high energy states of atomic nuclei (gamma decay), but are also created by other processes. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from radium. Villard's radiation was named "gamma rays" by Ernest Rutherford in 1903.

Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes, and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles. Rare terrestrial natural sources produce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes.

Motion

In physics, motion is a change in position of an object with respect to time and its reference point. Motion is typically described in terms of displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time. Motion is observed by attaching a frame of reference to a body and measuring its change in position relative to another reference frame.

A body which does not move is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (time-invariant) position. An object's motion cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described by Newton's first law. An object's momentum is directly related to the object's mass and velocity, and the total momentum of all objects in a closed system (one not affected by external forces) does not change with time, as described by the law of conservation of momentum.

As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion cannot be determined.  Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.

 More generally, the term motion signifies a continuous change in the configuration of a physical system. For example, one can talk about motion of a wave or a quantum particle (or any other field) where the configuration consists of probabilities of occupying specific positions.

Types of Motion

·        Simple harmonic motion - is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement. It can serve as a mathematical model of a variety of motions, such as the oscillation of a spring. In addition, other phenomena can be approximated by simple harmonic motion, including the motion of a simple pendulum as well as molecular vibration.

Example: a pendulum

       

    Periodic motion - in physics, motion repeated in equal intervals of time.

                 Example:  rocking chair, a bouncing ball, a vibrating tuning fork

                                 

      Rectilinear motion (Linear motion) – motion which follows a straight linear path, and whose displacement is exactly the same as its trajectory.

                Example:  apple falling from a tree

                               

         Reciprocating Motion - repetitive up-and-down or back-and-forth motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms, including reciprocating engines and pumps. The two opposite motions that comprise a single reciprocation cycle are called strokes

              Example: gears in a machine

                         

·        Brownian motion - is the presumably random moving of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid.

                Examples: the random movement of particles

                           

 

 Circular motion - is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation (and constant speed), or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass of a body.

               Examples:  the orbits of planets

                                

·        Rotary motion – a motion about a fixed point.

                    Examples: Ferris wheel

       Curvilinear motion – It is defined as the motion along a curved path that may be planar or in three dimensions.

                     Example: a ball that is thrown

                                         

Rolling motion - is a type of motion that combines rotation (commonly, of an axially symmetric object) and translation of that object with respect to a surface (either one or the other moves), such that, if ideal conditions exist, the two are in contact with each other without sliding.

         Example: the wheel of a bicycle

                

      Oscillation - is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples include a swinging pendulum and AC power. The term vibration is sometimes used more narrowly to mean a mechanical oscillation but is sometimes used as a synonym of "oscillation". Oscillations occur not only in physical systems but also in biological systems, from human society to the brain.

                   Example: a spring system is an oscillatory system